Thailand infrastructure

introduction

The peopling of Thailand refers to the process by which the ethnic groups that comprise the population of present-day Thailand came to inhabit the region. Aside from ethnic groups representing recent expatriate migrations, and the earliest Negrito arrivals, the ethnic groups of Thailand are all believed to be descended from ethnicities associated with clades of Y-DNA Haplogroup O, suggesting an ancient homogeneous ethnicity in China some 35,000 years ago which, over time, spread out and independently evolved into diverse sub-ethnicities, branches of which found their way to Thailand at different points in history, employing different migration routes and modes of transportation, only after being infused with elements of other cultures along the way, via both exposure and inter-breeding. The result is an extremely diverse population of distantly related tribes with a common Asian heritage steeped in ancient tradition.

The country's official name was Siam (Thai: สยาม; IPA: [saˈjaːm], RTGS: Sayam origin unknown) until June 24, 1939,^[3] and between 1945 and May 11, 1949, when it was changed to Thailand. The word Thai (ไทย) is not, as commonly believed to be, derived from the word Thai (ไท) meaning "freedom" in the Thai language; it is, however, the name of an ethnic group from the central plains (the Thai people).^{[citation needed]} With that in mind the locals seemed to have also accepted the alternative meaning and will verbally state that it means "Land of the free". This might be due to language barriers and the avoidance of long difficult explanations.^{[citation needed]}

Ratcha Anachak Thai means "Kingdom of Thailand" or "Kingdom of Thai". Etymologically, its components are: -Ratcha- (from Sanskrit raja, meaning "king, royal, realm", from Sanskrit) ; -ana- (from Pāli āṇā, "authority, command, power", itself from Sanskrit ājñā, same meaning) -chak (from Sanskrit chakra, meaning "wheel", a symbol of power and rule).

Ratcha Anachak Thai Kingdom of Thailand
Flag Emblem
Anthem: Phleng Chat Royal anthem: Phleng Sansoen Phra Barami
Capital (and largest city)		Bangkok [1] 13°45′N, 100°29′E
Official languages		Thai
Demonym		Thai
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
-	Monarch	King Bhumibol Adulyadej
-	Prime Minister	Surayud Chulanont
Formation
-	Sukhothai Kingdom	1238–1368
-	Ayutthaya Kingdom	1350
-	Thonburi Kingdom	1767
-	Rattanakosin Kingdom	April 6, 1782
-	Constitutional Monarchy	June 24, 1932
Area
-	Total	513,115 km² (49th) 198,115 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.4
Population
-	Dec 2006 estimate	62,828,706 [2] (20th)
-	2000 census	60,606,947 [1]
-	Density	122/km² (80th) 317/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$596.5 billion[2] (21st)
-	Per capita	$9,200[2] (69th)
GDP (nominal)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$206.258 billion (34th)
-	Per capita	$3,136 (87th)
Gini (2002)		42 (medium)
HDI (2005)		0.781 (medium) (78th)
Currency		Baht (฿) (THB)
Time zone		(UTC+7)
Internet TLD		.th
Calling code		+66

Ratcha Anachak Thai Kingdom of Thailand
Flag Emblem
Anthem: Phleng Chat Royal anthem: Phleng Sansoen Phra Barami
Capital (and largest city)		Bangkok [1] 13°45′N, 100°29′E
Official languages		Thai
Demonym		Thai
Government		Constitutional Monarchy
-	Monarch	King Bhumibol Adulyadej
-	Prime Minister	Surayud Chulanont
Formation
-	Sukhothai Kingdom	1238–1368
-	Ayutthaya Kingdom	1350
-	Thonburi Kingdom	1767
-	Rattanakosin Kingdom	April 6, 1782
-	Constitutional Monarchy	June 24, 1932
Area
-	Total	513,115 km² (49th) 198,115 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.4
Population
-	Dec 2006 estimate	62,828,706 [2] (20th)
-	2000 census	60,606,947 [1]
-	Density	122/km² (80th) 317/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$596.5 billion[2] (21st)
-	Per capita	$9,200[2] (69th)
GDP (nominal)		2006 estimate
-	Total	$206.258 billion (34th)
-	Per capita	$3,136 (87th)
Gini (2002)		42 (medium)
HDI (2005)		0.781 (medium) (78th)
Currency		Baht (฿) (THB)
Time zone		(UTC+7)
Internet TLD		.th
Calling code		+66

History

The region known today as Thailand has been inhabited by humans since the paleolithic period (about 500,000 - 10,000 years ago). Prior to the fall of the Khmer Empire in the 13th century, various states thrived there, such as the various Tai, Mon, Khmer and Malay kingdoms, as seen through the numerous archaeological sites and artifacts that are scattered throughout the Siamese landscape. Prior to the 12th century however, the first Thai or Siamese state is traditionally considered to be the Buddhist kingdom of Sukhothai, which was founded in 1238, following the decline and fall of the Khmer empire in the 13th - 15th century AD.

A century later, Sukhothai's power was overshadowed by the larger Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya, established in the mid-14th century. After the fall of Angkor, the Siamese helped the survivors reestablish a new Khmer kingdom as Cambodia, a new country on the coast of Cochin China. Much of the Khmer court and its Hindu customs were already a part of Ayutthayan culture, and the Khmer people were retaught the customs and rituals of their ancestors.

After Ayutthaya fell in 1767 to the Burmese, Thonburi was the capital of Thailand for a brief period under King Taksin the Great. The current (Rattanakosin) era of Thai history began in 1782 following the establishment of Bangkok as capital of the Chakri dynasty under King Rama I the Great.

European powers began traveling to Thailand in the 16th century. Despite European pressure, Thailand is the only Southeast Asian nation never to have been colonized by a European country. Two main reasons for this were that Thailand had a long succession of very able rulers in the 1800s and that it was able to exploit the rivalry and tension between the French and the British. As a result, the country remained as a buffer state between parts of Southeast Asia that were colonised by the two colonial powers. Despite this, Western influence led to many reforms in the 19th century and major concessions, most notably being the loss of large territory on the east side of the Mekong to the French and the step by step absorption by Britan of the Shan (Thai Yai) States (now in Myanmar) and the Malay Peninsula. The loss initially included Penang and Tumasik and eventually culminated in the loss of three predominantly ethnic-Malay southern provinces, which later became Malaysia's three northern states, under the (Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909).

In 1932, a bloodless revolution resulted in a new constitutional monarchy. During World War II, Thailand was an ally with Japan while at the same time maintaining an active anti-Japanese resistance movement known as the Seri Thai. After the war, Thailand emerged as an ally of the United States. As with many of the developing nations during the Cold war, Thailand then went through decades of political transgression characterised by coups d'états as one military regime replaced another, but eventually progressed towards a stable prosperity and democracy in the 1980s.

In 1997, Thailand was hit with the Asian financial crisis and the Thai baht for a short time peaked at 56 baht to the U.S. dollar compared to about 25 baht to the dollar before 1997. Since then, the baht has regained most of its strength and as of May 23, 2007, is valued at 33 baht to the US dollar.

The official calendar in Thailand is based on Eastern version of the Buddhist Era, which is 543 years ahead of the Gregorian (western) calendar. For example, the year AD 2008 is called 2551 BE in Thailand.

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Thailand

See also: Constitutions of Thailand

History

Since the political reform of the absolute monarchy in 1932, Thailand has had 17 constitutions and charters.^[4][5] Throughout this time, the form of government has ranged from military dictatorship to electoral democracy, but all governments have acknowledged a hereditary monarch as the head of state.^[6][7]

1997 to 2006

The 1997 Constitution was the first constitution to be drafted by popularly-elected Constitutional Drafting Assembly, and was popularly called the "People's Constitution".^[8]

The 1997 Constitution created a bicameral legislature consisting of a 500-seat House of Representatives (สภาผู้แทนราษฎร, sapha phutan ratsadon) and a 200-seat Senate (วุฒิสภา, wuthisapha). For the first time in Thai history, both houses were directly elected. Many human rights are explicitly acknowledged, and measures were established to increase the stability of elected governments. The House was elected by the first-past-the-post system, where only one candidate with a simple majority could be elected in one constituency. The Senate was elected based on the province system, where one province can return more than one Senator depending on its population size. Members of the House of Representatives served four-year terms, while Senators served six-year terms.

The court system (ศาล, saan) included a constitutional court with jurisdiction over the constitutionality of parliamentary acts, royal decrees, and political matters.

The January 2001 general election, the first elections under the 1997 Constitution, were called the most open, corruption-free election in Thai history.^[9] The subsequent government was the first in Thai history to complete a 4-year term. The 2005 election had the highest voter turnout in Thai history and was noted for a marked reduction in vote-buying compared to previous elections.^[10][11][12] THAILAND IS A GREAT VACATION AREA TO GO AND SPEND TIME WITH YOUR LOVING FAMILY!

In early 2006, significant pressure from corruption allegations led Thaksin Shinawatra to call for a snap election. The opposition boycotted the elections and Thaksin was re-elected. Pressure continued to build, leading to a military coup on 19 September 2006.

After the 2006 coup

Without meeting much resistance, a military junta overthrew the elected government of Thaksin Shinawatra on 19 September 2006. The junta abrogated the constitution, dissolved Parliament and the Constitutional Court, detained and later removed several members of the government, declared martial law, and appointed one of the King's Privy Councillors, General Surayud Chulanont, as Prime Minister. The junta later wrote a highly abbreviated interim constitution and appointed a panel to draft a permanent constitution. The junta also appointed a 250-member legislature, called by some critics a "chamber of generals" and others claimed that it lacks representatives from the poor majority.^[13][14] In this interim constitution draft, the head of the junta was allowed to remove the Prime Minister at any time. The legislature was not allowed to hold a vote of confidence against the Cabinet and the public was not allowed to file comments on bills.^[15] This interim constitution was later surpassed by the permanent constitution on 24 August 2007.

Martial law was partially revoked in January 2007. The junta continues to censor the media and was accused of several other human rights violations.

The ban on political activities was lifted in July 2007,^[16] following the May 30 dissolution of the Thai Rak Thai party. The new constitution has been approved by a referendum on August 19, which led to a return to democratic elections on December 23, 2007.

Thailand remains an active member of the regional Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

Administrative divisions

Map of Thailand

Main article: Subdivisions of Thailand

Thailand is divided into 76 provinces (จังหวัด, changwat) , which are gathered into 5 groups of provinces by location. There are also 2 special governed districts: the capital Bangkok (Krung Thep Maha Nakhon) and Pattaya, of which Bangkok is at provincial level and thus often counted as a 76th province.

Each province is divided into smaller districts. As of 2000 there are 877 districts (อำเภอ, amphoe) and the 50 districts of Bangkok (เขต, khet). Some parts of the provinces bordering Bangkok are also referred to as Greater Bangkok (ปริมณฑล, pari monthon). These provinces include Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, Samut Prakan, Nakhon Pathom and Samut Sakhon. The name of each province's capital city (เมือง, mueang) is the same as that of the province: for example, the capital of Chiang Mai province (changwat Chiang Mai) is Mueang Chiang Mai or Chiang Mai . The 75 provinces are as follows:

Central

1. Ang Thong
2. Bangkok (Krung Thep Maha Nakhon), Special Governed District of [1]
3. Chai Nat
4. Kanchanaburi [2]
5. Lop Buri
6. Nakhon Nayok
7. Nakhon Pathom [1]
8. Nonthaburi [1]
9. Pathum Thani [1]
10. Phetchaburi [2]
11. Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
12. Prachuap Khiri Khan [2]
13. Ratchaburi [2]
14. Samut Prakan [1]
15. Samut Sakhon [1]
16. Samut Songkhram [2]
17. Saraburi
18. Sing Buri
19. Suphan Buri

East

1. Chachoengsao
2. Chanthaburi
3. Chonburi
4. Prachinburi
5. Rayong
6. Sa Kaeo
7. Trat

Phra That Chae Haeng, Nan Province

North

1. Chiang Mai
2. Chiang Rai
3. Kamphaeng Phet
4. Lampang
5. Lamphun
6. Mae Hong Son
7. Nakhon Sawan
8. Nan
9. Phayao
10. Phetchabun
11. Phichit
12. Phitsanulok
13. Phrae
14. Sukhothai
15. Tak
16. Uthai Thani
17. Uttaradiet

Phra That Phanom, Nakhon Phanom Province

[ Northeast

1. Amnat Charoen
2. Buri Ram
3. Chaiyaphum
4. Kalasin
5. Khon Kaen
6. Loei
7. Maha Sarakham
8. Mukdahan
9. Nakhon Phanom
10. Nakhon Ratchasima
11. Nong Bua Lamphu
12. Nong Khai
13. Roi Et
14. Sakon Nakhon
15. Si Sa Ket
16. Surin
17. Ubon Ratchathani
18. Udon Thani
19. Yasothon

Phra Boromathat Chedi or Phra That Nakhon, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province

South

1. Chumphon
2. Krabi
3. Nakhon Si Thammarat
4. Narathiwat
5. Pattani
6. Phang Nga
7. Phatthalung
8. Phuket
9. Ranong
10. Satun
11. Songkhla
12. Surat Thani
13. Trang
14. Yala

NOTE: In italics [1], that province represents the Greater Bangkok sub-region; in italics [2], that province represents the West sub-region.

Geography

A waterfall in Sai Yok National Park.

Main article: Geography of Thailand

At 514,000 km² (198,000 sq mi) , Thailand is the world's 49th-largest country. It is comparable in size to France, and somewhat larger than the US state of California.

Thailand is home to several distinct geographic regions, partly corresponding to the provincial groups. The north of the country is mountainous, with the highest point being Doi Inthanon at 2,565 metres (8,415 ft). The northeast consists of the Khorat Plateau, bordered to the east by the Mekong river. The centre of the country is dominated by the predominantly flat Chao Phraya river valley, which runs into the Gulf of Thailand. The south consists of the narrow Kra Isthmus that widens into the Malay Peninsula.

The local climate is tropical and characterised by monsoons. There is a rainy, warm, and cloudy southwest monsoon from mid-May to September, as well as a dry, cool northeast monsoon from November to mid-March. The southern isthmus is always hot and humid. Major cities beside the capital Bangkok include Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Udon Thani, Ubon Ratchathani, Nakhon Sawan, Chiang Mai, Phitsanulok, Surat Thani, Phuket and Hat Yai.

See also: River Systems of Thailand and List of islands of Thailand

Economy

King Bhumibol on a 100 Thai baht banknote

A BTS skytrain passing the Sathon area of Bangkok.

Main article: Economy of Thailand

Thailand is a newly industrialised country. After enjoying the world's highest growth rate from 1985 to 1996 - averaging almost 9% annually - increased pressure on Thailand's currency, the baht, in 1997, the year in which the economy contracted by 1.9% led to a crisis that uncovered financial sector weaknesses and forced the government to float the currency. Pegged at 25 to the US dollar from 1978 to 1997, the baht reached its lowest point of 56 to the US dollar in January 1998 and the economy contracted by 10.8% that same year. The collapse prompted a wider Asian financial crisis.

Thailand entered a recovery stage in 1998, expanding 4.2% and 4.4% in 2000, largely due to strong exports - which increased about 20% in 2000. Growth (2.2%) was dampened by a softening of the global economy in 2001, but picked up in the subsequent years due to strong growth in the People's Republic of China and the various domestic stimulation programmes of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra, popularly known as Thaksinomics. Growth in 2002/03 and 2004 was 5-7% annually.^[2]

Thailand exports over $105 billion worth of products annually ^[2]. Major exports include rice, textiles and footwear, fishery products, rubber, jewelry, automobiles, computers and electrical appliances. Thailand is the world’s no.1 exporter of rice, exporting 6.5 million tons of milled rice annually. Rice is the most important crop in the country. Thailand has the highest percent of arable land, 27.25%, of any nation in the Greater Mekong Subregion ^[17]. About 55% of the available land area is used for rice production ^[18].

Substantial industries include electric appliances, components, computer parts and automobiles, while tourism contributes about 5% of the Thai economy's GDP. Long stay foreign residents and their business investments also contribute heavily to GDP.

Thailand uses the metric system but traditional units of measurement are still much in use. Years are numbered as B.E. (Buddhist Era) on contracts and newspaper datelines; in banking, however, standard Western year counting prevails ^[19].

Demographics

A market (Phahurat;พาหุรัด) in Bangkok.

Language

Thailand's population can be generally categorized into the Central Thai, the Northeastern Thai or Isan, the Northern Thai, and the Southern Thai. The Central Thai have long dominated the nation politically, economically, and culturally, even though they make up only about one-third of Thailand's population and are slightly outnumbered by the Northeastern Thai. Due to the education system and the forging of a national identity, many people are now able to speak Central Thai as well as their own local dialects.

The largest group of non-Thai people are the Chinese who have historically played a disproportionately significant role in the economy. Many have assimilated into mainstream Thai society, and do not live in Bangkok's Chinatown on Yaowarat Road. Other dominant ethnic groups include Malays in the south, Mon, Khmer and various hill tribes. After the end of the Vietnam War, many Vietnamese refugees settled in Thailand, mainly in the northeastern region.

The Thai language is Thailand's national language, written in its own alphabet, but many ethnic and regional dialects exist as well as areas where people speak predominantly Isan or Mon-Khmer languages. Although English is widely taught in schools, its use is not widespread throughout the country.

Religion

According to the last census (2000) 95% of Thais are Buddhists of the Theravada tradition. Muslims are the second largest religious group in Thailand at 4.6%. Thailand's southernmost provinces - Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat and part of Songkhla Chumphon have dominant Muslim populations, consisting of both ethnic Thai and Malay.^{[verification needed]} Most often Muslims live in separate communities from non-Muslims. The southern tip of Thailand is mostly ethnic Malays. Christians, mainly Catholics, represent 0.75% of the population. A tiny but influential community of Sikhs and some Hindus also live in the country's cities, and are heavily engaged in retail commerce. There is also a small Jewish community in Thailand, dating back to the 17th century. Since 2001, Muslim activists, generally described by the Thai government as terrorists or separatists, have rallied against the central government because of alleged corruption and ethnic bias on the part of officials.

Culture

Thai bells at the Golden Mount in Bangkok.

Main article: Culture of Thailand

The culture of Thailand incorporates a great deal of influence from India, China, and the rest of southeast Asia. Thailand's main theology Theravada Buddhism is central to modern Thai identity and belief. In practice, Thai Buddhism has evolved over time to include many regional beliefs originating from animism as well as ancestor worship. In areas in the southernmost parts of Thailand, Islam is prevalent. Several different ethnic groups, many of which are marginalized, populate Thailand. Some of these groups overlap into Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia and have maintained a distinctly traditional way of life despite strong Thai cultural influence. Overseas Chinese also form a significant part of Thai society, particularly in and around Bangkok. Their successful integration into Thai society has allowed for this group to hold positions of economic and political power, the most noteworthy of these being the Thai Prime Minister, Thaksin Shinawatra, who held power from 2001 until September 19, 2006 when he was ousted by a military coup d'état.

Like most Asian cultures, respect towards ancestors is an essential part of Thai spiritual practice. Thais have a strong sense of hospitality and generosity, but also a strong sense of social hierarchy. Seniority is an important concept in Thai culture. Elders have by tradition ruled in family decisions or ceremonies.

Theravada Buddhism is highly respected in Thailand.

The traditional Thai greeting, the wai, is generally offered first by the youngest of the two people meeting, with their hands pressed together, fingertips pointing upwards as the head is bowed to touch their face to the hands, usually coinciding with the spoken word "Sawat-dii khrap" for male speakers, and "Sawat-dii ka" for females. The elder then is to respond afterwards in the same way. Social status and position, such as in government, will also have an influence on who performs the wai first. For example, although one may be considerably older than a provincial governor, when meeting it is usually the visitor who pays respect first. When children leave to go to school, they are taught to wai to their parents to represent their respect for them. They do the same when they come back. The wai is a sign of respect and reverence for another, similar to the namaste greeting of India.

Muay Thai, or Thai boxing, is the national sport in Thailand and its natives martial art call "Muay". In the past "Muay" was taught to Royal soldiers for combat on battlefield if unarmed. After they retired from the army, these soldiers often became Buddhist monks and stayed at the temples. Most of the Thai people's lives are closely tied to Buddhism and temples; they often send their sons to be educated with the monks. ”Muay” is also one of the subjects taught in the temples.^[20].

Muay Thai achieved popularity all over the world in the 1990s. Although similar martial arts styles exist in other southeast Asian countries, few enjoy the recognition that Muay Thai has received with its full-contact rules allowing strikes including elbows, throws and knees. Football (soccer), however, has possibly overtaken Muay Thai's position as most widely viewed and liked sport in contemporary Thai society and it is not uncommon to see Thais cheering their favourite English Premier League teams on television and walking around in replica kits. Another widely enjoyed pastime, and once a competitive sport, is kite flying.

Taboos in Thailand include touching someone's head or pointing with the feet, as the head is considered the most sacred and the foot the dirtiest part of the body. Stepping over someone, or over food, is considered insulting. However, Thai culture as in many other Asian cultures, is succumbing to the influence of globalization with some of the traditional taboos slowly fading away with time.

Books and other documents are the most revered of secular objects - therefore one should not slide a book across a table or place it on the floor.

Thai cuisine blends five fundamental tastes: sweet, spicy, sour, bitter and salty. Some common ingredients used in Thai cuisine include garlic, chillies, lime juice, lemon grass, and fish sauce. The staple food in Thailand is rice, particularly jasmine variety rice (also known as Hom Mali rice) which is included in almost every meal. Thailand is the world's largest exporter of rice, and Thais domestically consume over 100 kg of milled rice per person per year ^[18]. Over 5000 varieties of rice from Thailand are preserved in the rice gene bank of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) , based in the Philippines. The King of Thailand is the official patron of IRRI^[21].

Thai society has been influenced in recent years by its widely-available multi-language press and media. There are numerous English, Thai and Chinese newspapers in circulation; most Thai popular magazines use English headlines as a chic glamor factor. Most large businesses in Bangkok operate in English as well as other languages. English is also spoken among many Thais, sometimes as a way of demonstrating their educated, high-society status, but other times because of the lingua franca nature of English. Thailand is the largest newspaper market in South East Asia with an estimated circulation of at least 13 million copies daily in 2003. Even upcountry, out of Bangkok, media flourishes. For example, according to Thailand's Public Relations Department Media Directory 2003-2004, the nineteen provinces of northeast Thailand themselves hosted 116 newspapers in addition to radio, TV and cable.

International rankings

Organization	Survey	Ranking
Heritage Foundation	Indices of Economic Freedom	50 out of 157
Reporters Without Borders	Worldwide Press Freedom Index	135 out of 169
Transparency International	Corruption Perceptions Index	84 out of 179
United Nations Development Programme	Human Development Index	78 out of 177

Origin of the Negrito

Being among the least-known of all living human groups, the origins of the Negrito people is a much debated topic. The Malay term for them is orang asli, or original people. They are likely descendants of the indigenous populations of the Sunda landmass and New Guinea, predating the Mongoloid and Australoid peoples who later entered Southeast Asia. ^[2] Alternatively, some scientists claim they are merely a group of Australo-Melanesians who have undergone island dwarfing over thousands of years, reducing their food intake in order to cope with limited resources and adapt to a tropical rainforest environment. Regardless of the theory of origin, geographically speaking, they probably came to Thailand via the lower portion of the Malay Peninsula, through present-day Malaysia.

See also: Peopling of Malaysia

Coastal migration of the indigenous Mon-Khmer populations

Map showing present distribution of Austro-Asiatic languages throughout Southeast Asia

The Mon-Khmer ethnicities were among the earliest aboriginal populations in Southeast Asia. The arrival of these ethnic groups likely represents the first waves of settlement in Thailand, although considerable inter-Southeast-Asian migration has taken place since their arrival, especially during the prevalence of the Khmer Empire in Thailand. Archaeologists suspect that the Mon-Khmer may have spread through Thailand throughout the metal ages, bringing rice agriculture, metalworking, domestic animals, and the Mon-Khmer languages to the region.^[3] They are believed to have spread through Southeast Asia from west to east along the coast, and then subsequently migrated inland along the rivers to the central plains of Thailand, long before the arrival of the now dominant Tai ethnic groups.^[3]

Origin of the Mon-Khmer peoples

Comparative linguistics reveals that the Mon-Khmer are of Austro-Asiatic descent. Genetic research suggests that Y-DNA Haplogroup O2a is the primary marker associated with the Austro-Asiatic ethnicities, suggesting that some 35,000 years ago, the Austro-Asiatic people were homogeneous with the Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, and Hmong-Mien peoples (prior to the evolution of Y-DNA Haplogroup O into its present clades), sharing a common homeland in central China. The coastal immigration theory suggests that the Mon-Khmer probably first entered Thailand from the northwest, via present-day Burma, where a large population of Mon still exists.

See also: Peopling of Burma

Regional Mon-Khmer migration throughout Southeast Asia and cross-cultural infusion

Throughout the history of Southeast Asia, the various Mon-Khmer and other Austro-Asiatic ethnic groups of the region have migrated from one territory to another within the region, for reasons such as the expansion and contraction of political boundaries (particularly during the Khmer Empire), the expansion of individual tribal populations, and the threats imposed by other civilizations in the region. Also, in early days, the Austro-Asiatic were a hunter-gatherer civilization, a lifestyle which lends itself to continuous migration. Along with this ongoing intra-regional migration, there has been considerable cross-cultural inter-marriage over the years between the Mon-Khmer peoples and other Southeast Asian civilizations, resulting in a Mon-Khmer population very different in both physical appearance and culture from other branches of the Austro-Asiatic ethnic tree who migrated elsewhere. Likewise, Mon-Khmer have largely assimilated into the later-arriving dominant Tai population in Thailand, beginning at an early stage in the region's history, thereby infusing their culture and genetics into the modern Thai people.

Individual Mon-Khmer ethnic groups in Thailand

Khmer woman working in field

Since the Mon-Khmer were aboriginal to the region, there is great ethnic diversity among the individual ethnic groups. In fact, there are at least 15 distinct Mon-Khmer ethnic groups who make their home in Thailand today. These groups have resided within Thailand for thousands of years, with the possible exception of the Pearic ethnic groups who are indigenous to neighboring Cambodia. The following Mon-Khmer ethnic groups currently reside in Thailand:

• Aslian clade (indigenous to the Malay Peninsula)
  • Kensiu
  • Kintaq
• Viet-Muong clade
  • So (forest tribe straddling the Thai-Laotian border)
• Monic clade (indigenous to Burma and Thailand)
  • Mon
  • Nyahkur (Nyah Kur, Chao-bon)
• Pearic clade (indigenous to Cambodia, fled recently to Thailand, but were probably a people of Thailand as well during prehistoric times)
  • Chong
    • Chong Heap
    • Chong La
    • Chong-Samré
  • Sa'och
• Katuic clade (indigenous to Thailand and surrounding countries to the east)
  • Bru
  • Kuy
  • Nyeu
• Khmer (indigenous to Cambodia and Thailand)

Arrival of Malayic peoples by sea

Traditional Moken boat

The Malay were historically a sea-faring people, as is evident by their prominence on the islands of Southeast Asia, and they likely settled throughout the region via a mixture of sea and land routes. The Malayic migrations to Thailand took place over a vast expanse of time. The Mon-Khmer probably inhabited the Malay Peninsula prior to or contemporaneous with the Malay people, but long before the Tai came into the region.

Origin of the Malayic peoples

It is believed that the ancient Malayic speakers were once part of a greater Malayo-Polynesian people who originated in Borneo and then expanded outwards into Sumatra and later into the Malay Peninsula, establishing substantial settlements in present-day Malaysia. They were part of an earlier Austronesian ethnicity originating on the Island of Taiwan. It is believed that the Y-DNA haplogroup O1 is associated with the Austronesian people, thus suggesting that prior to their arrival in Taiwan, they were part of an earlier ethnicity in China which encompassed the Sino-Tibetan and Austro-Asiatic people as well. Archaeological evidence supports this theory, and suggests that the Malayo-Polynesian may have come to Southeast Asia via boat, south from mainland China along the Mekong River after settling for a period of time in mainland China.

Individual Malayo-Polynesian ethnic groups in Thailand

Girl belonging to the Cham ethnic group

• Cham (population of 4,000 in Thailand, considered to be descendants of the kingdom of Champa, the only Malayo-Polynesian ethnic group in Thailand to have migrated by land, coming from the coastal region of Vietnam where they had settled over a thousand years ago by sea, to Thailand via Cambodia in recent times)
• Malay (Penninsular and Island ethnic groups in Southern Thailand)
  • Pattani
  • Satun
• Moklen clade (Nomadic sea-based tribes)
  • Moken
  • Moklen
• Urak Lawoi (Sea Gypsies residing on the islands of Lipe and Adang, in the Adang Archipelago off the western coast of Thailand)

Gradual inland migration of Tai peoples from China

The Tai migration from the northern mountains into Thailand and Laos was a slow process, with the Tai generally remaining near to the mountainous regions within the region, where they were able to use their specialized agricultural knowledge relating to the use of mountain water resources for rice production. The earliest Tai settlements in Thailand were along the river valleys in along the northern border of the country. Eventually, the Tai settled the central plains of Thailand (which were covered with dense rainforest) and displaced and inter-bred with the pre-existing Austro-Asiatic population. The languages and culture of the Tai eventually came to dominate the regions of both modern-day Laos and Thailand. In more recent times, many of the Tai tribes of Laos also migrated west across the border establishing communities in Thailand. The Laotian Tai ethnic groups, often referred to as the Lao), are largely clustered in the Isan region of Thailand.

Origin of the Tai peoples

Photograph of a contemporary aboriginal Taiwanese woman illustrating a vague resemblance in appearance to the modern Tai, although ethnic fusion has modified Tai physical features considerably over the millennia

Comparative linguistic research seems to indicate that the Tai people were a proto Tai-Kadai speaking culture of southern China, and that they, like the Malay-Polynesians, may have originally been of Austronesian descent.^[4] Prior to inhabiting mainland China, the Tai are suspected to have migrated from a homeland on the island of Taiwan where they spoke a dialect of Proto-Austronesian or one of its descendant languages.^[4] After the arrival of Sino-Tibetan speaking ethnic groups from mainland China to the island of Taiwan, the Tai would have then migrated into mainland China, perhaps along the Pearl River, where their language greatly changed in character from the other Austonesian languages under influence of Sino-Tibetan and Hmong-Mien language infusion. The coming of the Han Chinese to this region of southern China may have prompted the Tai to migrate in mass once again, this time southward over the mountains of southern China into Southeast Asia via the mountains of Burma and Laos to the north of Thailand.^[5] It is believed that the Tai ethnic groups began migrating southward from China and into Southeast Asia during the first millennium A.D. While this theory of the origin of the Tai is currently the leading theory, there is insufficient archaeological evidence to prove or disprove the proposition at this time, and the linguistic evidence alone is not conclusive. However, in further support of the theory, it is believed that the O1 Y-DNA haplogroup is associated with both the Austronesian people and the Tai.

See also: Peopling of China

Tai ethnic fusion

Over the years, the Tai intermarried and absorbed many of the other populations who co-inhabited and/or politically occupied the region, particularly populations of Mon-Khmer, Burmese, and Chinese descent. This fusion of ethnicity has led to considerable genetic diversity in the modern Thai people, and has resulted in a Tai population significantly different in culture, language and physical appearance from the Tai ethnic groups who remained in China. In addition, many of the individual Tai ethnic groups have merged under a common Thai identity, and have adopted a nationalistic view of their culture.

Individual Tai ethnic groups in Thailand

There are presently upwards of 30 distinct Tai ethnic groups within Thailand, making up nearly 85% of the nation's population. The genetic stratification of the ethnic clades of the Tai ethnicity is a topic of present debate among linguists and other social scientists. A list of the individual Tai ethnic groups is provided in a separate article: List of Tai ethnic groups in Southeast Asia (Thailand).

Continuous diverse Chinese immigration from the 13th century

The history of Chinese immigration to Thailand dates back many centuries, and the specific Chinese ethnic groups which made their way to Thailand are numerous, although there is a greater concentration of Chinese from the southern provinces due to their geographic proximity to Thailand. The Chinese are a part of the greater Sino-Tibetan ethnicity which also includes the Tibeto-Burmans. The Chinese immigrants were largely able to merge into the predominant Tai culture, and have contributed significantly to the economy and infrastructure of Thailand over the years. Even the current King of Thailand is part Chinese, on his mother's side. Also of note, the Khek River in Thailand derives its name from the Thai word Khek, which is the Thai name for the Hakka ethnic group of China who settled along its banks in the Phitsanulok Province.

Chinese immigration during the Ayutthayan Period

Chinese traders in Thailand, mostly from Fujian and Guangdong, began arriving in Ayutthaya by at least the thirteenth century. Ayutthaya was under almost constant Burmese threat from the 16th century, and Qianlong, the Emperor of Qing was alarmed by the Burmese military might. From 1766-1769, Qianlong sent his armies four times to subdue the Burmese, but all four invasions failed. Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese in 1767. During the Ayutthaya period, many of the Chinese traders and soldiers inter-married with the local Tai, infusing Chinese culture among the population early in its history.

18th and 19th century male Chinese immigration

In the 18th century, General Taksin actively encouraged Chinese immigration and trade. Settlers principally from Chaozhou prefecture came in large numbers.^[6] By 1825, the population of Chinese in Thailand was 230,000, and grew steadily as a constant stream of Chinese immagrants entered the country throughout the 19th century. Early Chinese immigration consisted almost entirely of Chinese men who married Thai women. Children of such intermarriages were known as Luk-jin (ลูกจีน) in Thai.^[7]

20th century immigration of Chinese families

The Chinese population in Thailand rose to 792,000 by 1910. By 1932, approximately 12.2% of the population of Thailand was Chinese. The corruption of the Qing dynasty and the massive population increase in China, along with very high taxes, caused many families to leave China for Thailand in search of work. The Chinese who came before the World War One generally came by sailboats called sampans; whereas by the end of World War Two, most came by steam ships.^[8] The earlier tradition of Chinese-Thai intermarriage declined when large numbers of Chinese women began to emigrate into Thailand in the early 20th century. Moreover, the new arrivals frequently came in families and resisted assimilation.

Origin of the Chinese

The Chinese are of Sino-Tibetan ancestry, and are therefore distantly related to the Tibeto-Burman people.

See also: Peopling of China

Burmese infusion during the Ayutthaya Period

Historical evidence suggests that Burmese intermarriage with the Tai in Thailand likely occurred during the Burmese occupation of Ayutthaya. These Burmese invaders from the Pagan Kingdom were largely of Tibeto-Burman ethnicity, particularly members of the Bamar ethnic group, (with an infusion of indigenous Southeast Asian Mon-Khmer ancestry).

Origin of the Tibeto-Burman peoples

The Tibeto-Burmans in Southeast Asia primarily took a migration route from western China, expanding southward into the Himalayas of Tibet, and southeast into Burma. Comparative linguistics suggests that the Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups are part of a larger ethnicity referred to as Sino-Tibetan. The Sino-Tibetan, Hmong-Mien, Tai and Austronesian ethnicities all have high incidence of Y-DNA haplogroup O, which suggests a common ancestral ethnicity along the lines of 35,000 years ago in an area within the borders of the present-day Peoples Republic of China.

See also: Peopling of Burma

Lolo migration from Tibet via Burma

Boy of the Loloish Akha tribe wearing traditional dress

Some Loloish tribes such as the Lisu arrived in Thailand as recent as 100 years ago,^[9] while others came at a much earlier date. The Lolo are believed to be descended from the ancient Qiang people of western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from Southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today.

Origin of the Lolo

The Lolo (also commonly referred to as the Yi) is one of the two major distinct Tibeto-Burmese ethnicities within present-day Thailand, along with the Karen. The Lolo migrated southeast from Burma into Thailand.

See also: Peopling of Burma

Individual Loloish ethnic groups in Thailand

The Loloish of Thailand are generally hill tribes in the northern portion of the country, near the border with Burma. A list of the Loloish ethnic groups of significant size within Thailand are as follows:^[10]

• Southern Loloish clade
  • Akha sub-clade
    • Akha (population of approximately 60,000 in Thailand, centered around Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai and Mae Hong Son Provinces)
    • Lahu (population of approximately 52,000 in Thailand)
  • Bisu (population of approximately 1,000 in Thailand, centered around Chiang Rai and Lampang Provinces)
  • Mpi (population of approximately 1,200 within Thailand)
  • Phunoi
  • Ugong
• Northern Loloish clade
  • Lisu (population of approximately 16,000 in Thailand)

Hmong-Mien migration from China via Laos

Women in traditional Hmong dress

Like the Lolo, many of the Hmong-Mien ethnic groups are among the hill tribes in Thailand. Their population is clustered in the north-eastern region of Thailand near the Laotian border. The Hmong-Mien of Thailand generally migrated from China through Laos during the second half of the nineteenth century, where they established themselves for some time, prior to their arrival in Thailand.^[11] An exception to the China-Laos-Thailand migration pattern is the Iu Mien ethnic group, who apparently passed through Vietnam during the thirteenth century, prior to entering Thailand through Laos. ^[11] The Iu Mien arrived in Thailand approximately 200 years ago, contemporaneously with a large number of other Hmong-Mien migrants.^[11]

Origin of the Hmong-Mien peoples

The primary homeland of the Hmong-Mien ethnicity is said to be Kweichow, in the Yunnan Province of south-eastern China, where they settled least 2000 years ago.^[11] The Y-DNA haplogroup O3, strongly associated with the Hmong-Mien suggests that they were originally of the same stock as the Sino-Tibetan people, likely originating from a common ancestral heritage in central China some 10,000 years ago. However, linguists have been unable to confirm any definitive linguistic relationship between the two language families thus far.

See also: Peopling of China

Palaungic Arival as Burmese Refugees

Palaungic tribal woman

The Palaungic people are indigenous Southeast Asians. The center of their population cluster in present-day Burma and neighboring regions of China. Most, if not all, of the Palaungic people arrived in Thailand recently as refugees from Burma.

] Origin of the Palaungic peoples

The Palaungic are closely related to the Mon-Khmer. They are an Austro-Asiatic people of Burma.

See also: Peopling of Burma

Individual Palaungic ethnic groups in Thailand

The following is a list of Palaungic ethnic groups of significant size in Thailand:

• Blang (larger population clusters in China and Burma)
• Lamet (larger population cluster in Laos)
• Lawa (larger population cluster in China)
• Mok (nearly extinct culture along the Wang River in Thailand with only 7 members able to speak their aboriginal language)
• Palaung (indigenous to Burma where they have a population of 257,539, compared to a population of 5,000 in Thailand who arrived recently as refugees)

[edit] Karen arrival as refugees from Burma

The Karen left Tibet and migrated to Burma as refugees, establishing themselves along the Burmese border with Thailand. When during World War II the Japanese occupied Burma, long-term tensions between the Karen and Burmese turned into open fighting. After the war ended, Burma was granted independence in January 1948, and the Karen, led by the KNU, attempted to co-exist peacefully with the Burman ethnic majority. However, in the fall of 1948, the Burmese government, led by U Nu, began raising and arming irregular political militias known as Sitwundan. In January 1949, some of these militias went on a rampage through Karen communities.^[12] In 2004, the BBC cited aid agencies estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly Karen, living in refugee camps on the Thai side of the Burmese-Thai border. The conflict continues as of 2006.

Origin of the Karen

The Karen people's ancestors were from Tibet, and are Tibeto-Burman, and therefore distantly related to the Lolo.

See also: Peopling of Tibet

Individual Karen ethnic groups in Thailand

There are approximately 510,000 people of Karen descent living in Thailand.^[10] A list of the Karen ethnic groups of significant size within Thailand are as follows:^[10]

• Pa'o
• Pwo clade
  • Phrae Pwo
  • Northern and Western Pwo
• Sgaw-Bghai clade
  • S'gaw
  • Kayah (population of approximately 100,000 in Thailand, centered around Mae Hong Son Province)

Khmuic arrival as refugees from Laos

The Khmuic people are indigenous Southeast Asians. The center of their population cluster in present-day Laos. They were by-in-large absorbed by the later arriving Tai ethnicity, except for small populations that migrated to the mountainous regions of Laos during the Tai migration into the region. Most of these ethnic groups entered Thailand recently as refugees from Laos around the outset of the Vietnam War. An exception is the Mlabri, who are a nomadic people whose dwindling population has straddled the forests along the Thai-Laotian border for quite some time.

Origin of the Khmuic peoples

The Khmuic peoples are closely related to the Palaungic peoples. They are an Austro-Asiatic people of Laos.

See also: Peopling of Laos

Individual Khmuic ethnic groups in Thailand

The following is a list of Khmuic ethnic groups of significant size in Thailand:

• Khmu
• Lua
• Mlabri
• Phai
• Pray
• Tin (referred to as the Mal in Laos)

Expatriate populations in recent times

In recent times, since the development of inter-continental modes of transport in Thailand, including air travel, populations of Indian, Japanese, Korean, European and African descent have added to the ethnic pool of Thailand, particularly around the area of Bangkok. The Thai often refer to those of European or African descent as farang (a cognate of the English word Frank), which is a moderately derogatory term. Most farang come to Thailand on a temporary basis, although a growing community has begun to settle in Thailand, as the coastal regions of Thailand are establishing themselves as an ideal locations for western businessmen to retire and enjoy a low cost-of-living.

Rail transport in Thailand

Network

Thailand has 4,180 kilometers of meter gauge railway tracks not including mass transit lines in Bangkok.

Northern Line

The Northern Line begins alongside the Northeastern Line up until Ban Phachi Junction. Here, it splits from the Northeastern Line and proceeds through Lopburi, Nakhon Sawan, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Denchai junction, Lampang, Lamphun, before finally reaching Chiang Mai 751 kilometers away from Bangkok. There is also a branch off the mainline from Ban Dara junction to Sawankhalok in Sukhothai Province.

Northeastern Line

The Northeastern Line begins on the same route as the Northern Line, splitting at Ban Phachi Junction towards Nakhon Ratchasima. Then at Thanon Jira Junction, the line splits with one route passing Khon Kaen and Udon Thani before terminating at Nong Khai 624 kilometers from Bangkok. The other route passes through Buriram, Surin, Si Sa Ket to reach Ubon Ratchathani, 575 kilometers from Bangkok.

There is also another branch route originating from Kaeng Khoi Junction in Saraburi Province passing through Lamnarai in Lopburi Province, Chaturat in Chaiyaphum Province, before joining the mainline heading towards Nong Khai at Bua Yai in Nakhon Ratchasima Province.

Southern Line

The Southern Line begins in Bangkok and heads west towards Nakhon Pathom before splitting into 3 different routes. One route heads west towards Kanchanaburi Province (km 210) while another heads north towards Suphan Buri (km 157). The Southern Line itself continues southbound through Ratchaburi, Phetchaburi, Hua Hin, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Chumphon, to Surat Thani 678 kilometers away. From Surat Thani, there is a westerly branch towards Khiri Ratnikhom while the main line continues south to Thung Song Junction in Nakhon Si Thammarat Province where another branch reaches Kantang in Trang Province. The main line from Nakhon Sri Thammarat continues through Phatthalung before reaching Hatyai Junction in Songkhla Province. From here, the line branches to connect with the Malaysian railway at Padang Besar and Sungai Golok passing through Yala Province in the process.

Eastern Line

The Eastern Line begins at Bangkok before heading through Chacheongsao, Prachinburi to terminate at Aranyaprathet station in Sa Kaew Province 255 kilometers later. There is an unused rail link to Cambodia from Aranyaprathet. A branch line also connects Khlong 19 to the Northeastern Line at Kaeng Khoi Junction. At Chacheongsao station, there is another branch to Sattahip from which there is also another branch to Sriracha Junction 139 kilometers from Bangkok. From Sriracha Junction, there is yet another branch towards Laem Chabang deep sea port and Mapthaphut.

Other lines

The Maeklong Railway is a line operated by the State Railway of Thailand. It is independent of the national rail network and is split into two sections. The line begins at Wong Wien Yai in Bangkok before terminating at Mahachai where a ferry is used by passengers to cross the Tha Chin river. The line starts again across the river towards Mae Klong.

Rail transport in Bangkok

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, King Rama V eagerly built a tram network for Bangkok by employing foreign engineers and technicians, especially Danish engineers. In fact, Bangkok had electric trams before Copenhagen. However, due to a lack of interest and maintenance the tram network was completely scrapped in 1968.

Bangkok's first modern mass transit system, the Bangkok Skytrain, was opened on 5 December 1999. It consists of 23 stations and 2 lines with a combined route length of 23 kilometers and there are 35 trains (3-car-train configuration) for whole fleet wide. While on 3 July 2004, the Bangkok Metro, a 21 kilometers, 18 stations underground mass transit rail line was opened and there are 19 trains (3-car-train configuration) for whole fleet wide, servicing to the public. In 2007, a record of passenger in BTS system increases to nearly 400,000 peoples a day and the number of passenger for BMCL system starts to increase with 190,000 peoples per day only.

Operators

All intercity rail transportation is managed by the State Railway of Thailand, a government agency responsible for rail infrastructure investment as well as freight and passenger services.

In Bangkok, the Skytrain is operated by Bangkok Mass Transit System Public Company Limited (BTSC) under a concession granted by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) but the investment for the structure and system were fully supported by BTSC. The underground system is operated by Bangkok Metro Company Limited (BMCL), while whole project investments were shared by Mass Rapid Transit Authorities (MRTA) and BMCL, which all civil structures was provided by government sector and the system was provided by private sector (BMCL). The deal of contract between BMCL and MRTA are under the concession agreement for 25 years operation.

Future

The Suvarnabhumi Airport Link is a high speed train route currently being constructed by the State Railway of Thailand linking Suvarnabhumi Airport and Phaya Thai BTS Station as well as Makkasan station, which is also set to serve as the City Air Terminal. It is expected to be operational in mid- to late-2008.

Mass transit routes in Bangkok is also set to be expanded. Excluding the already under construction extensions to the Skytrain, the Bangkok Metropolitan Government is planning a northern as well as western expansion of the Skytrain. The Central Government, through the State Railway of Thailand and Mass Rapid Transit Authority are also planning to build several new metro routes, three of which will begin construction by year end.

The Thai Government also has double tracking projects including a double tracking project currently in the works between Laem Chabang deep sea port and the Lad Krabang ICD. Also, in line with the Government's policy of reducing overall logistics costs in Thailand, there are plans to completely double track all the main lines in the country as well as upgrade track quality. The Government is also mulling a restructuring of the State Railway of Thailand and granting operating concessions to private freight operators. An international rail link is also being constructed towards Vientiane in Laos via Nong Khai and the Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge.

There is also a plan to construct new railway routes to Chiang Rai in the North via Denchai Junction, to Phuket via Surat Thani, and to connect the Mae Klong railway to the main lines.